Auto merge of #111221 - compiler-errors:yeet-generalizer, r=lcnr

Combine three generalizer implementations

Fixes #111092
Fixes #109505

This code is a bit delicate and there were subtle changes between them, so I'll leave inline comments where further inspection is needed.

Regarding this comment from #109813 -- "add tests triggering all codepaths: at least the combine and the const generalizer", can't really do that now, and I don't really know how we'd get a higher-ranked const error since non-lifetime binders doesn't *really* support `for<const ..>` (it errors out when you try to use it).

r? `@lcnr`

13 files changed, 627 insertions, 831 deletions

diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/combine.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/combine.rs
index 3f385c47f19..79fc02c6c79 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/combine.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/combine.rs
@@ -26,24 +26,17 @@ use super::equate::Equate;
 use super::glb::Glb;
 use super::lub::Lub;
 use super::sub::Sub;
-use super::type_variable::TypeVariableValue;
-use super::{DefineOpaqueTypes, InferCtxt, MiscVariable, TypeTrace};
+use super::{DefineOpaqueTypes, InferCtxt, TypeTrace};
+use crate::infer::generalize::{self, CombineDelegate, Generalization};
 use crate::traits::{Obligation, PredicateObligations};
-use rustc_data_structures::sso::SsoHashMap;
-use rustc_hir::def_id::DefId;
 use rustc_middle::infer::canonical::OriginalQueryValues;
 use rustc_middle::infer::unify_key::{ConstVarValue, ConstVariableValue};
 use rustc_middle::infer::unify_key::{ConstVariableOrigin, ConstVariableOriginKind};
-use rustc_middle::traits::ObligationCause;
 use rustc_middle::ty::error::{ExpectedFound, TypeError};
-use rustc_middle::ty::relate::{self, Relate, RelateResult, TypeRelation};
-use rustc_middle::ty::subst::SubstsRef;
-use rustc_middle::ty::{
-    self, AliasKind, FallibleTypeFolder, InferConst, ToPredicate, Ty, TyCtxt, TypeFoldable,
-    TypeSuperFoldable, TypeVisitableExt,
-};
+use rustc_middle::ty::relate::{RelateResult, TypeRelation};
+use rustc_middle::ty::{self, AliasKind, InferConst, ToPredicate, Ty, TyCtxt, TypeVisitableExt};
 use rustc_middle::ty::{IntType, UintType};
-use rustc_span::{Span, DUMMY_SP};
+use rustc_span::DUMMY_SP;
 
 #[derive(Clone)]
 pub struct CombineFields<'infcx, 'tcx> {
@@ -55,13 +48,6 @@ pub struct CombineFields<'infcx, 'tcx> {
     pub define_opaque_types: DefineOpaqueTypes,
 }
 
-#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]
-pub enum RelationDir {
-    SubtypeOf,
-    SupertypeOf,
-    EqTo,
-}
-
 impl<'tcx> InferCtxt<'tcx> {
     pub fn super_combine_tys<R>(
         &self,
@@ -152,7 +138,7 @@ impl<'tcx> InferCtxt<'tcx> {
                 Ok(a)
             }
 
-            _ => ty::relate::super_relate_tys(relation, a, b),
+            _ => ty::relate::structurally_relate_tys(relation, a, b),
         }
     }
 
@@ -211,11 +197,11 @@ impl<'tcx> InferCtxt<'tcx> {
             // matching in the solver.
             let a_error = self.tcx.const_error(a.ty(), guar);
             if let ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)) = a.kind() {
-                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, a_error);
+                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, a_error, relation.param_env());
             }
             let b_error = self.tcx.const_error(b.ty(), guar);
             if let ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)) = b.kind() {
-                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, b_error);
+                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, b_error, relation.param_env());
             }
 
             return Ok(if relation.a_is_expected() { a_error } else { b_error });
@@ -237,11 +223,11 @@ impl<'tcx> InferCtxt<'tcx> {
             }
 
             (ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)), _) => {
-                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, b);
+                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, b, relation.param_env());
             }
 
             (_, ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid))) => {
-                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, a);
+                return self.unify_const_variable(vid, a, relation.param_env());
             }
             (ty::ConstKind::Unevaluated(..), _) | (_, ty::ConstKind::Unevaluated(..))
                 if self.tcx.lazy_normalization() =>
@@ -252,7 +238,7 @@ impl<'tcx> InferCtxt<'tcx> {
             _ => {}
         }
 
-        ty::relate::super_relate_consts(relation, a, b)
+        ty::relate::structurally_relate_consts(relation, a, b)
     }
 
     /// Unifies the const variable `target_vid` with the given constant.
@@ -294,24 +280,17 @@ impl<'tcx> InferCtxt<'tcx> {
         &self,
         target_vid: ty::ConstVid<'tcx>,
         ct: ty::Const<'tcx>,
+        param_env: ty::ParamEnv<'tcx>,
     ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Const<'tcx>> {
-        let (for_universe, span) = {
-            let mut inner = self.inner.borrow_mut();
-            let variable_table = &mut inner.const_unification_table();
-            let var_value = variable_table.probe_value(target_vid);
-            match var_value.val {
-                ConstVariableValue::Known { value } => {
-                    bug!("instantiating {:?} which has a known value {:?}", target_vid, value)
-                }
-                ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => (universe, var_value.origin.span),
-            }
-        };
-        let value = ct.try_fold_with(&mut ConstInferUnifier {
-            infcx: self,
-            span,
-            for_universe,
+        let span =
+            self.inner.borrow_mut().const_unification_table().probe_value(target_vid).origin.span;
+        let Generalization { value, needs_wf: _ } = generalize::generalize(
+            self,
+            &mut CombineDelegate { infcx: self, span, param_env },
+            ct,
             target_vid,
-        })?;
+            ty::Variance::Invariant,
+        )?;
 
         self.inner.borrow_mut().const_unification_table().union_value(
             target_vid,
@@ -392,12 +371,10 @@ impl<'infcx, 'tcx> CombineFields<'infcx, 'tcx> {
     pub fn instantiate(
         &mut self,
         a_ty: Ty<'tcx>,
-        dir: RelationDir,
+        ambient_variance: ty::Variance,
         b_vid: ty::TyVid,
         a_is_expected: bool,
     ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ()> {
-        use self::RelationDir::*;
-
         // Get the actual variable that b_vid has been inferred to
         debug_assert!(self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().probe(b_vid).is_unknown());
 
@@ -412,7 +389,18 @@ impl<'infcx, 'tcx> CombineFields<'infcx, 'tcx> {
         // `'?2` and `?3` are fresh region/type inference
         // variables. (Down below, we will relate `a_ty <: b_ty`,
         // adding constraints like `'x: '?2` and `?1 <: ?3`.)
-        let Generalization { ty: b_ty, needs_wf } = self.generalize(a_ty, b_vid, dir)?;
+        let Generalization { value: b_ty, needs_wf } = generalize::generalize(
+            self.infcx,
+            &mut CombineDelegate {
+                infcx: self.infcx,
+                param_env: self.param_env,
+                span: self.trace.span(),
+            },
+            a_ty,
+            b_vid,
+            ambient_variance,
+        )?;
+
         debug!(?b_ty);
         self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().instantiate(b_vid, b_ty);
 
@@ -431,78 +419,23 @@ impl<'infcx, 'tcx> CombineFields<'infcx, 'tcx> {
         // relations wind up attributed to the same spans. We need
         // to associate causes/spans with each of the relations in
         // the stack to get this right.
-        match dir {
-            EqTo => self.equate(a_is_expected).relate(a_ty, b_ty),
-            SubtypeOf => self.sub(a_is_expected).relate(a_ty, b_ty),
-            SupertypeOf => self.sub(a_is_expected).relate_with_variance(
+        match ambient_variance {
+            ty::Variance::Invariant => self.equate(a_is_expected).relate(a_ty, b_ty),
+            ty::Variance::Covariant => self.sub(a_is_expected).relate(a_ty, b_ty),
+            ty::Variance::Contravariant => self.sub(a_is_expected).relate_with_variance(
                 ty::Contravariant,
                 ty::VarianceDiagInfo::default(),
                 a_ty,
                 b_ty,
             ),
+            ty::Variance::Bivariant => {
+                unreachable!("no code should be generalizing bivariantly (currently)")
+            }
         }?;
 
         Ok(())
     }
 
-    /// Attempts to generalize `ty` for the type variable `for_vid`.
-    /// This checks for cycle -- that is, whether the type `ty`
-    /// references `for_vid`. The `dir` is the "direction" for which we
-    /// a performing the generalization (i.e., are we producing a type
-    /// that can be used as a supertype etc).
-    ///
-    /// Preconditions:
-    ///
-    /// - `for_vid` is a "root vid"
-    #[instrument(skip(self), level = "trace", ret)]
-    fn generalize(
-        &self,
-        ty: Ty<'tcx>,
-        for_vid: ty::TyVid,
-        dir: RelationDir,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Generalization<'tcx>> {
-        // Determine the ambient variance within which `ty` appears.
-        // The surrounding equation is:
-        //
-        //     ty [op] ty2
-        //
-        // where `op` is either `==`, `<:`, or `:>`. This maps quite
-        // naturally.
-        let ambient_variance = match dir {
-            RelationDir::EqTo => ty::Invariant,
-            RelationDir::SubtypeOf => ty::Covariant,
-            RelationDir::SupertypeOf => ty::Contravariant,
-        };
-
-        trace!(?ambient_variance);
-
-        let for_universe = match self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().probe(for_vid) {
-            v @ TypeVariableValue::Known { .. } => {
-                bug!("instantiating {:?} which has a known value {:?}", for_vid, v,)
-            }
-            TypeVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => universe,
-        };
-
-        trace!(?for_universe);
-        trace!(?self.trace);
-
-        let mut generalize = Generalizer {
-            infcx: self.infcx,
-            cause: &self.trace.cause,
-            for_vid_sub_root: self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().sub_root_var(for_vid),
-            for_universe,
-            ambient_variance,
-            needs_wf: false,
-            root_ty: ty,
-            param_env: self.param_env,
-            cache: SsoHashMap::new(),
-        };
-
-        let ty = generalize.relate(ty, ty)?;
-        let needs_wf = generalize.needs_wf;
-        Ok(Generalization { ty, needs_wf })
-    }
-
     pub fn register_obligations(&mut self, obligations: PredicateObligations<'tcx>) {
         self.obligations.extend(obligations.into_iter());
     }
@@ -514,313 +447,6 @@ impl<'infcx, 'tcx> CombineFields<'infcx, 'tcx> {
     }
 }
 
-struct Generalizer<'cx, 'tcx> {
-    infcx: &'cx InferCtxt<'tcx>,
-
-    /// The span, used when creating new type variables and things.
-    cause: &'cx ObligationCause<'tcx>,
-
-    /// The vid of the type variable that is in the process of being
-    /// instantiated; if we find this within the type we are folding,
-    /// that means we would have created a cyclic type.
-    for_vid_sub_root: ty::TyVid,
-
-    /// The universe of the type variable that is in the process of
-    /// being instantiated. Any fresh variables that we create in this
-    /// process should be in that same universe.
-    for_universe: ty::UniverseIndex,
-
-    /// Track the variance as we descend into the type.
-    ambient_variance: ty::Variance,
-
-    /// See the field `needs_wf` in `Generalization`.
-    needs_wf: bool,
-
-    /// The root type that we are generalizing. Used when reporting cycles.
-    root_ty: Ty<'tcx>,
-
-    param_env: ty::ParamEnv<'tcx>,
-
-    cache: SsoHashMap<Ty<'tcx>, Ty<'tcx>>,
-}
-
-/// Result from a generalization operation. This includes
-/// not only the generalized type, but also a bool flag
-/// indicating whether further WF checks are needed.
-#[derive(Debug)]
-struct Generalization<'tcx> {
-    ty: Ty<'tcx>,
-
-    /// If true, then the generalized type may not be well-formed,
-    /// even if the source type is well-formed, so we should add an
-    /// additional check to enforce that it is. This arises in
-    /// particular around 'bivariant' type parameters that are only
-    /// constrained by a where-clause. As an example, imagine a type:
-    ///
-    ///     struct Foo<A, B> where A: Iterator<Item = B> {
-    ///         data: A
-    ///     }
-    ///
-    /// here, `A` will be covariant, but `B` is
-    /// unconstrained. However, whatever it is, for `Foo` to be WF, it
-    /// must be equal to `A::Item`. If we have an input `Foo<?A, ?B>`,
-    /// then after generalization we will wind up with a type like
-    /// `Foo<?C, ?D>`. When we enforce that `Foo<?A, ?B> <: Foo<?C,
-    /// ?D>` (or `>:`), we will wind up with the requirement that `?A
-    /// <: ?C`, but no particular relationship between `?B` and `?D`
-    /// (after all, we do not know the variance of the normalized form
-    /// of `A::Item` with respect to `A`). If we do nothing else, this
-    /// may mean that `?D` goes unconstrained (as in #41677). So, in
-    /// this scenario where we create a new type variable in a
-    /// bivariant context, we set the `needs_wf` flag to true. This
-    /// will force the calling code to check that `WF(Foo<?C, ?D>)`
-    /// holds, which in turn implies that `?C::Item == ?D`. So once
-    /// `?C` is constrained, that should suffice to restrict `?D`.
-    needs_wf: bool,
-}
-
-impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Generalizer<'_, 'tcx> {
-    fn tcx(&self) -> TyCtxt<'tcx> {
-        self.infcx.tcx
-    }
-
-    fn param_env(&self) -> ty::ParamEnv<'tcx> {
-        self.param_env
-    }
-
-    fn tag(&self) -> &'static str {
-        "Generalizer"
-    }
-
-    fn a_is_expected(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    fn binders<T>(
-        &mut self,
-        a: ty::Binder<'tcx, T>,
-        b: ty::Binder<'tcx, T>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Binder<'tcx, T>>
-    where
-        T: Relate<'tcx>,
-    {
-        Ok(a.rebind(self.relate(a.skip_binder(), b.skip_binder())?))
-    }
-
-    fn relate_item_substs(
-        &mut self,
-        item_def_id: DefId,
-        a_subst: SubstsRef<'tcx>,
-        b_subst: SubstsRef<'tcx>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, SubstsRef<'tcx>> {
-        if self.ambient_variance == ty::Variance::Invariant {
-            // Avoid fetching the variance if we are in an invariant
-            // context; no need, and it can induce dependency cycles
-            // (e.g., #41849).
-            relate::relate_substs(self, a_subst, b_subst)
-        } else {
-            let tcx = self.tcx();
-            let opt_variances = tcx.variances_of(item_def_id);
-            relate::relate_substs_with_variances(
-                self,
-                item_def_id,
-                &opt_variances,
-                a_subst,
-                b_subst,
-                true,
-            )
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn relate_with_variance<T: Relate<'tcx>>(
-        &mut self,
-        variance: ty::Variance,
-        _info: ty::VarianceDiagInfo<'tcx>,
-        a: T,
-        b: T,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, T> {
-        let old_ambient_variance = self.ambient_variance;
-        self.ambient_variance = self.ambient_variance.xform(variance);
-
-        let result = self.relate(a, b);
-        self.ambient_variance = old_ambient_variance;
-        result
-    }
-
-    fn tys(&mut self, t: Ty<'tcx>, t2: Ty<'tcx>) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Ty<'tcx>> {
-        assert_eq!(t, t2); // we are abusing TypeRelation here; both LHS and RHS ought to be ==
-
-        if let Some(&result) = self.cache.get(&t) {
-            return Ok(result);
-        }
-        debug!("generalize: t={:?}", t);
-
-        // Check to see whether the type we are generalizing references
-        // any other type variable related to `vid` via
-        // subtyping. This is basically our "occurs check", preventing
-        // us from creating infinitely sized types.
-        let result = match *t.kind() {
-            ty::Infer(ty::TyVar(vid)) => {
-                let vid = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().root_var(vid);
-                let sub_vid = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().sub_root_var(vid);
-                if sub_vid == self.for_vid_sub_root {
-                    // If sub-roots are equal, then `for_vid` and
-                    // `vid` are related via subtyping.
-                    Err(TypeError::CyclicTy(self.root_ty))
-                } else {
-                    let probe = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().probe(vid);
-                    match probe {
-                        TypeVariableValue::Known { value: u } => {
-                            debug!("generalize: known value {:?}", u);
-                            self.relate(u, u)
-                        }
-                        TypeVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => {
-                            match self.ambient_variance {
-                                // Invariant: no need to make a fresh type variable.
-                                ty::Invariant => {
-                                    if self.for_universe.can_name(universe) {
-                                        return Ok(t);
-                                    }
-                                }
-
-                                // Bivariant: make a fresh var, but we
-                                // may need a WF predicate. See
-                                // comment on `needs_wf` field for
-                                // more info.
-                                ty::Bivariant => self.needs_wf = true,
-
-                                // Co/contravariant: this will be
-                                // sufficiently constrained later on.
-                                ty::Covariant | ty::Contravariant => (),
-                            }
-
-                            let origin =
-                                *self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().var_origin(vid);
-                            let new_var_id = self
-                                .infcx
-                                .inner
-                                .borrow_mut()
-                                .type_variables()
-                                .new_var(self.for_universe, origin);
-                            let u = self.tcx().mk_ty_var(new_var_id);
-
-                            // Record that we replaced `vid` with `new_var_id` as part of a generalization
-                            // operation. This is needed to detect cyclic types. To see why, see the
-                            // docs in the `type_variables` module.
-                            self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().sub(vid, new_var_id);
-                            debug!("generalize: replacing original vid={:?} with new={:?}", vid, u);
-                            Ok(u)
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            ty::Infer(ty::IntVar(_) | ty::FloatVar(_)) => {
-                // No matter what mode we are in,
-                // integer/floating-point types must be equal to be
-                // relatable.
-                Ok(t)
-            }
-            ty::Alias(ty::Opaque, ty::AliasTy { def_id, substs, .. }) => {
-                let s = self.relate(substs, substs)?;
-                Ok(if s == substs { t } else { self.infcx.tcx.mk_opaque(def_id, s) })
-            }
-            _ => relate::super_relate_tys(self, t, t),
-        }?;
-
-        self.cache.insert(t, result);
-        Ok(result)
-    }
-
-    fn regions(
-        &mut self,
-        r: ty::Region<'tcx>,
-        r2: ty::Region<'tcx>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Region<'tcx>> {
-        assert_eq!(r, r2); // we are abusing TypeRelation here; both LHS and RHS ought to be ==
-
-        debug!("generalize: regions r={:?}", r);
-
-        match *r {
-            // Never make variables for regions bound within the type itself,
-            // nor for erased regions.
-            ty::ReLateBound(..) | ty::ReErased => {
-                return Ok(r);
-            }
-
-            ty::ReError(_) => {
-                return Ok(r);
-            }
-
-            ty::RePlaceholder(..)
-            | ty::ReVar(..)
-            | ty::ReStatic
-            | ty::ReEarlyBound(..)
-            | ty::ReFree(..) => {
-                // see common code below
-            }
-        }
-
-        // If we are in an invariant context, we can re-use the region
-        // as is, unless it happens to be in some universe that we
-        // can't name. (In the case of a region *variable*, we could
-        // use it if we promoted it into our universe, but we don't
-        // bother.)
-        if let ty::Invariant = self.ambient_variance {
-            let r_universe = self.infcx.universe_of_region(r);
-            if self.for_universe.can_name(r_universe) {
-                return Ok(r);
-            }
-        }
-
-        // FIXME: This is non-ideal because we don't give a
-        // very descriptive origin for this region variable.
-        Ok(self.infcx.next_region_var_in_universe(MiscVariable(self.cause.span), self.for_universe))
-    }
-
-    fn consts(
-        &mut self,
-        c: ty::Const<'tcx>,
-        c2: ty::Const<'tcx>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Const<'tcx>> {
-        assert_eq!(c, c2); // we are abusing TypeRelation here; both LHS and RHS ought to be ==
-
-        match c.kind() {
-            ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)) => {
-                let mut inner = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut();
-                let variable_table = &mut inner.const_unification_table();
-                let var_value = variable_table.probe_value(vid);
-                match var_value.val {
-                    ConstVariableValue::Known { value: u } => {
-                        drop(inner);
-                        self.relate(u, u)
-                    }
-                    ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => {
-                        if self.for_universe.can_name(universe) {
-                            Ok(c)
-                        } else {
-                            let new_var_id = variable_table.new_key(ConstVarValue {
-                                origin: var_value.origin,
-                                val: ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe: self.for_universe },
-                            });
-                            Ok(self.tcx().mk_const(new_var_id, c.ty()))
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            ty::ConstKind::Unevaluated(ty::UnevaluatedConst { def, substs }) => {
-                let substs = self.relate_with_variance(
-                    ty::Variance::Invariant,
-                    ty::VarianceDiagInfo::default(),
-                    substs,
-                    substs,
-                )?;
-                Ok(self.tcx().mk_const(ty::UnevaluatedConst { def, substs }, c.ty()))
-            }
-            _ => relate::super_relate_consts(self, c, c),
-        }
-    }
-}
-
 pub trait ObligationEmittingRelation<'tcx>: TypeRelation<'tcx> {
     /// Register obligations that must hold in order for this relation to hold
     fn register_obligations(&mut self, obligations: PredicateObligations<'tcx>);
@@ -873,135 +499,3 @@ fn float_unification_error<'tcx>(
     let (ty::FloatVarValue(a), ty::FloatVarValue(b)) = v;
     TypeError::FloatMismatch(ExpectedFound::new(a_is_expected, a, b))
 }
-
-struct ConstInferUnifier<'cx, 'tcx> {
-    infcx: &'cx InferCtxt<'tcx>,
-
-    span: Span,
-
-    for_universe: ty::UniverseIndex,
-
-    /// The vid of the const variable that is in the process of being
-    /// instantiated; if we find this within the const we are folding,
-    /// that means we would have created a cyclic const.
-    target_vid: ty::ConstVid<'tcx>,
-}
-
-impl<'tcx> FallibleTypeFolder<TyCtxt<'tcx>> for ConstInferUnifier<'_, 'tcx> {
-    type Error = TypeError<'tcx>;
-
-    fn interner(&self) -> TyCtxt<'tcx> {
-        self.infcx.tcx
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self), ret)]
-    fn try_fold_ty(&mut self, t: Ty<'tcx>) -> Result<Ty<'tcx>, TypeError<'tcx>> {
-        match t.kind() {
-            &ty::Infer(ty::TyVar(vid)) => {
-                let vid = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().root_var(vid);
-                let probe = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().probe(vid);
-                match probe {
-                    TypeVariableValue::Known { value: u } => {
-                        debug!("ConstOccursChecker: known value {:?}", u);
-                        u.try_fold_with(self)
-                    }
-                    TypeVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => {
-                        if self.for_universe.can_name(universe) {
-                            return Ok(t);
-                        }
-
-                        let origin =
-                            *self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().var_origin(vid);
-                        let new_var_id = self
-                            .infcx
-                            .inner
-                            .borrow_mut()
-                            .type_variables()
-                            .new_var(self.for_universe, origin);
-                        Ok(self.interner().mk_ty_var(new_var_id))
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            ty::Infer(ty::IntVar(_) | ty::FloatVar(_)) => Ok(t),
-            _ => t.try_super_fold_with(self),
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self), ret)]
-    fn try_fold_region(
-        &mut self,
-        r: ty::Region<'tcx>,
-    ) -> Result<ty::Region<'tcx>, TypeError<'tcx>> {
-        debug!("ConstInferUnifier: r={:?}", r);
-
-        match *r {
-            // Never make variables for regions bound within the type itself,
-            // nor for erased regions.
-            ty::ReLateBound(..) | ty::ReErased | ty::ReError(_) => {
-                return Ok(r);
-            }
-
-            ty::RePlaceholder(..)
-            | ty::ReVar(..)
-            | ty::ReStatic
-            | ty::ReEarlyBound(..)
-            | ty::ReFree(..) => {
-                // see common code below
-            }
-        }
-
-        let r_universe = self.infcx.universe_of_region(r);
-        if self.for_universe.can_name(r_universe) {
-            return Ok(r);
-        } else {
-            // FIXME: This is non-ideal because we don't give a
-            // very descriptive origin for this region variable.
-            Ok(self.infcx.next_region_var_in_universe(MiscVariable(self.span), self.for_universe))
-        }
-    }
-
-    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self), ret)]
-    fn try_fold_const(&mut self, c: ty::Const<'tcx>) -> Result<ty::Const<'tcx>, TypeError<'tcx>> {
-        match c.kind() {
-            ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)) => {
-                // Check if the current unification would end up
-                // unifying `target_vid` with a const which contains
-                // an inference variable which is unioned with `target_vid`.
-                //
-                // Not doing so can easily result in stack overflows.
-                if self
-                    .infcx
-                    .inner
-                    .borrow_mut()
-                    .const_unification_table()
-                    .unioned(self.target_vid, vid)
-                {
-                    return Err(TypeError::CyclicConst(c));
-                }
-
-                let var_value =
-                    self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().const_unification_table().probe_value(vid);
-                match var_value.val {
-                    ConstVariableValue::Known { value: u } => u.try_fold_with(self),
-                    ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => {
-                        if self.for_universe.can_name(universe) {
-                            Ok(c)
-                        } else {
-                            let new_var_id =
-                                self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().const_unification_table().new_key(
-                                    ConstVarValue {
-                                        origin: var_value.origin,
-                                        val: ConstVariableValue::Unknown {
-                                            universe: self.for_universe,
-                                        },
-                                    },
-                                );
-                            Ok(self.interner().mk_const(new_var_id, c.ty()))
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            _ => c.try_super_fold_with(self),
-        }
-    }
-}
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/equate.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/equate.rs
index f90f7674b55..793505e4ab2 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/equate.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/equate.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 use crate::infer::DefineOpaqueTypes;
 use crate::traits::PredicateObligations;
 
-use super::combine::{CombineFields, ObligationEmittingRelation, RelationDir};
+use super::combine::{CombineFields, ObligationEmittingRelation};
 use super::Subtype;
 
 use rustc_middle::ty::relate::{self, Relate, RelateResult, TypeRelation};
@@ -88,11 +88,11 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Equate<'_, '_, 'tcx> {
             }
 
             (&ty::Infer(TyVar(a_id)), _) => {
-                self.fields.instantiate(b, RelationDir::EqTo, a_id, self.a_is_expected)?;
+                self.fields.instantiate(b, ty::Invariant, a_id, self.a_is_expected)?;
             }
 
             (_, &ty::Infer(TyVar(b_id))) => {
-                self.fields.instantiate(a, RelationDir::EqTo, b_id, self.a_is_expected)?;
+                self.fields.instantiate(a, ty::Invariant, b_id, self.a_is_expected)?;
             }
 
             (
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/error_reporting/mod.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/error_reporting/mod.rs
index ce70f39cc40..ad4f5058b5e 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/error_reporting/mod.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/error_reporting/mod.rs
@@ -2723,7 +2723,7 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for SameTypeModuloInfer<'_, 'tcx> {
             | (ty::Infer(ty::InferTy::TyVar(_)), _)
             | (_, ty::Infer(ty::InferTy::TyVar(_))) => Ok(a),
             (ty::Infer(_), _) | (_, ty::Infer(_)) => Err(TypeError::Mismatch),
-            _ => relate::super_relate_tys(self, a, b),
+            _ => relate::structurally_relate_tys(self, a, b),
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/generalize.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/generalize.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..d4a1dacde10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/generalize.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,479 @@
+use rustc_data_structures::sso::SsoHashMap;
+use rustc_hir::def_id::DefId;
+use rustc_middle::infer::unify_key::{ConstVarValue, ConstVariableValue};
+use rustc_middle::ty::error::TypeError;
+use rustc_middle::ty::relate::{self, Relate, RelateResult, TypeRelation};
+use rustc_middle::ty::{self, InferConst, Term, Ty, TyCtxt, TypeVisitableExt};
+use rustc_span::Span;
+
+use crate::infer::nll_relate::TypeRelatingDelegate;
+use crate::infer::type_variable::TypeVariableValue;
+use crate::infer::{InferCtxt, RegionVariableOrigin};
+
+/// Attempts to generalize `term` for the type variable `for_vid`.
+/// This checks for cycles -- that is, whether the type `term`
+/// references `for_vid`.
+pub(super) fn generalize<'tcx, D: GeneralizerDelegate<'tcx>, T: Into<Term<'tcx>> + Relate<'tcx>>(
+    infcx: &InferCtxt<'tcx>,
+    delegate: &mut D,
+    term: T,
+    for_vid: impl Into<ty::TermVid<'tcx>>,
+    ambient_variance: ty::Variance,
+) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Generalization<T>> {
+    let (for_universe, root_vid) = match for_vid.into() {
+        ty::TermVid::Ty(ty_vid) => (
+            infcx.probe_ty_var(ty_vid).unwrap_err(),
+            ty::TermVid::Ty(infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().sub_root_var(ty_vid)),
+        ),
+        ty::TermVid::Const(ct_vid) => (
+            infcx.probe_const_var(ct_vid).unwrap_err(),
+            ty::TermVid::Const(infcx.inner.borrow_mut().const_unification_table().find(ct_vid)),
+        ),
+    };
+
+    let mut generalizer = Generalizer {
+        infcx,
+        delegate,
+        ambient_variance,
+        root_vid,
+        for_universe,
+        root_term: term.into(),
+        needs_wf: false,
+        cache: Default::default(),
+    };
+
+    assert!(!term.has_escaping_bound_vars());
+    let value = generalizer.relate(term, term)?;
+    let needs_wf = generalizer.needs_wf;
+    Ok(Generalization { value, needs_wf })
+}
+
+/// Abstracts the handling of region vars between HIR and MIR/NLL typechecking
+/// in the generalizer code.
+pub trait GeneralizerDelegate<'tcx> {
+    fn param_env(&self) -> ty::ParamEnv<'tcx>;
+
+    fn forbid_inference_vars() -> bool;
+
+    fn generalize_region(&mut self, universe: ty::UniverseIndex) -> ty::Region<'tcx>;
+}
+
+pub struct CombineDelegate<'cx, 'tcx> {
+    pub infcx: &'cx InferCtxt<'tcx>,
+    pub param_env: ty::ParamEnv<'tcx>,
+    pub span: Span,
+}
+
+impl<'tcx> GeneralizerDelegate<'tcx> for CombineDelegate<'_, 'tcx> {
+    fn param_env(&self) -> ty::ParamEnv<'tcx> {
+        self.param_env
+    }
+
+    fn forbid_inference_vars() -> bool {
+        false
+    }
+
+    fn generalize_region(&mut self, universe: ty::UniverseIndex) -> ty::Region<'tcx> {
+        // FIXME: This is non-ideal because we don't give a
+        // very descriptive origin for this region variable.
+        self.infcx
+            .next_region_var_in_universe(RegionVariableOrigin::MiscVariable(self.span), universe)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'tcx, T> GeneralizerDelegate<'tcx> for T
+where
+    T: TypeRelatingDelegate<'tcx>,
+{
+    fn param_env(&self) -> ty::ParamEnv<'tcx> {
+        <Self as TypeRelatingDelegate<'tcx>>::param_env(self)
+    }
+
+    fn forbid_inference_vars() -> bool {
+        <Self as TypeRelatingDelegate<'tcx>>::forbid_inference_vars()
+    }
+
+    fn generalize_region(&mut self, universe: ty::UniverseIndex) -> ty::Region<'tcx> {
+        <Self as TypeRelatingDelegate<'tcx>>::generalize_existential(self, universe)
+    }
+}
+
+/// The "generalizer" is used when handling inference variables.
+///
+/// The basic strategy for handling a constraint like `?A <: B` is to
+/// apply a "generalization strategy" to the term `B` -- this replaces
+/// all the lifetimes in the term `B` with fresh inference variables.
+/// (You can read more about the strategy in this [blog post].)
+///
+/// As an example, if we had `?A <: &'x u32`, we would generalize `&'x
+/// u32` to `&'0 u32` where `'0` is a fresh variable. This becomes the
+/// value of `A`. Finally, we relate `&'0 u32 <: &'x u32`, which
+/// establishes `'0: 'x` as a constraint.
+///
+/// [blog post]: https://is.gd/0hKvIr
+struct Generalizer<'me, 'tcx, D> {
+    infcx: &'me InferCtxt<'tcx>,
+
+    /// This is used to abstract the behaviors of the three previous
+    /// generalizer-like implementations (`Generalizer`, `TypeGeneralizer`,
+    /// and `ConstInferUnifier`). See [`GeneralizerDelegate`] for more
+    /// information.
+    delegate: &'me mut D,
+
+    /// After we generalize this type, we are going to relate it to
+    /// some other type. What will be the variance at this point?
+    ambient_variance: ty::Variance,
+
+    /// The vid of the type variable that is in the process of being
+    /// instantiated. If we find this within the value we are folding,
+    /// that means we would have created a cyclic value.
+    root_vid: ty::TermVid<'tcx>,
+
+    /// The universe of the type variable that is in the process of being
+    /// instantiated. If we find anything that this universe cannot name,
+    /// we reject the relation.
+    for_universe: ty::UniverseIndex,
+
+    /// The root term (const or type) we're generalizing. Used for cycle errors.
+    root_term: Term<'tcx>,
+
+    cache: SsoHashMap<Ty<'tcx>, Ty<'tcx>>,
+
+    /// See the field `needs_wf` in `Generalization`.
+    needs_wf: bool,
+}
+
+impl<'tcx, D> Generalizer<'_, 'tcx, D> {
+    /// Create an error that corresponds to the term kind in `root_term`
+    fn cyclic_term_error(&self) -> TypeError<'tcx> {
+        match self.root_term.unpack() {
+            ty::TermKind::Ty(ty) => TypeError::CyclicTy(ty),
+            ty::TermKind::Const(ct) => TypeError::CyclicConst(ct),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'tcx, D> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Generalizer<'_, 'tcx, D>
+where
+    D: GeneralizerDelegate<'tcx>,
+{
+    fn tcx(&self) -> TyCtxt<'tcx> {
+        self.infcx.tcx
+    }
+
+    fn param_env(&self) -> ty::ParamEnv<'tcx> {
+        self.delegate.param_env()
+    }
+
+    fn tag(&self) -> &'static str {
+        "Generalizer"
+    }
+
+    fn a_is_expected(&self) -> bool {
+        true
+    }
+
+    fn relate_item_substs(
+        &mut self,
+        item_def_id: DefId,
+        a_subst: ty::SubstsRef<'tcx>,
+        b_subst: ty::SubstsRef<'tcx>,
+    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::SubstsRef<'tcx>> {
+        if self.ambient_variance == ty::Variance::Invariant {
+            // Avoid fetching the variance if we are in an invariant
+            // context; no need, and it can induce dependency cycles
+            // (e.g., #41849).
+            relate::relate_substs(self, a_subst, b_subst)
+        } else {
+            let tcx = self.tcx();
+            let opt_variances = tcx.variances_of(item_def_id);
+            relate::relate_substs_with_variances(
+                self,
+                item_def_id,
+                opt_variances,
+                a_subst,
+                b_subst,
+                true,
+            )
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, variance, b), ret)]
+    fn relate_with_variance<T: Relate<'tcx>>(
+        &mut self,
+        variance: ty::Variance,
+        _info: ty::VarianceDiagInfo<'tcx>,
+        a: T,
+        b: T,
+    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, T> {
+        let old_ambient_variance = self.ambient_variance;
+        self.ambient_variance = self.ambient_variance.xform(variance);
+        debug!(?self.ambient_variance, "new ambient variance");
+        let r = self.relate(a, b)?;
+        self.ambient_variance = old_ambient_variance;
+        Ok(r)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, t2), ret)]
+    fn tys(&mut self, t: Ty<'tcx>, t2: Ty<'tcx>) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Ty<'tcx>> {
+        assert_eq!(t, t2); // we are misusing TypeRelation here; both LHS and RHS ought to be ==
+
+        if let Some(&result) = self.cache.get(&t) {
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+
+        // Check to see whether the type we are generalizing references
+        // any other type variable related to `vid` via
+        // subtyping. This is basically our "occurs check", preventing
+        // us from creating infinitely sized types.
+        let g = match *t.kind() {
+            ty::Infer(ty::TyVar(_)) | ty::Infer(ty::IntVar(_)) | ty::Infer(ty::FloatVar(_))
+                if D::forbid_inference_vars() =>
+            {
+                bug!("unexpected inference variable encountered in NLL generalization: {t}");
+            }
+
+            ty::Infer(ty::FreshTy(_) | ty::FreshIntTy(_) | ty::FreshFloatTy(_)) => {
+                bug!("unexpected infer type: {t}")
+            }
+
+            ty::Infer(ty::TyVar(vid)) => {
+                let mut inner = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut();
+                let vid = inner.type_variables().root_var(vid);
+                let sub_vid = inner.type_variables().sub_root_var(vid);
+
+                if ty::TermVid::Ty(sub_vid) == self.root_vid {
+                    // If sub-roots are equal, then `root_vid` and
+                    // `vid` are related via subtyping.
+                    Err(self.cyclic_term_error())
+                } else {
+                    let probe = inner.type_variables().probe(vid);
+                    match probe {
+                        TypeVariableValue::Known { value: u } => {
+                            drop(inner);
+                            self.relate(u, u)
+                        }
+                        TypeVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => {
+                            match self.ambient_variance {
+                                // Invariant: no need to make a fresh type variable
+                                // if we can name the universe.
+                                ty::Invariant => {
+                                    if self.for_universe.can_name(universe) {
+                                        return Ok(t);
+                                    }
+                                }
+
+                                // Bivariant: make a fresh var, but we
+                                // may need a WF predicate. See
+                                // comment on `needs_wf` field for
+                                // more info.
+                                ty::Bivariant => self.needs_wf = true,
+
+                                // Co/contravariant: this will be
+                                // sufficiently constrained later on.
+                                ty::Covariant | ty::Contravariant => (),
+                            }
+
+                            let origin = *inner.type_variables().var_origin(vid);
+                            let new_var_id =
+                                inner.type_variables().new_var(self.for_universe, origin);
+                            let u = self.tcx().mk_ty_var(new_var_id);
+
+                            // Record that we replaced `vid` with `new_var_id` as part of a generalization
+                            // operation. This is needed to detect cyclic types. To see why, see the
+                            // docs in the `type_variables` module.
+                            inner.type_variables().sub(vid, new_var_id);
+                            debug!("replacing original vid={:?} with new={:?}", vid, u);
+                            Ok(u)
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            ty::Infer(ty::IntVar(_) | ty::FloatVar(_)) => {
+                // No matter what mode we are in,
+                // integer/floating-point types must be equal to be
+                // relatable.
+                Ok(t)
+            }
+
+            ty::Placeholder(placeholder) => {
+                if self.for_universe.can_name(placeholder.universe) {
+                    Ok(t)
+                } else {
+                    debug!(
+                        "root universe {:?} cannot name placeholder in universe {:?}",
+                        self.for_universe, placeholder.universe
+                    );
+                    Err(TypeError::Mismatch)
+                }
+            }
+
+            _ => relate::structurally_relate_tys(self, t, t),
+        }?;
+
+        self.cache.insert(t, g);
+        Ok(g)
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, r2), ret)]
+    fn regions(
+        &mut self,
+        r: ty::Region<'tcx>,
+        r2: ty::Region<'tcx>,
+    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Region<'tcx>> {
+        assert_eq!(r, r2); // we are misusing TypeRelation here; both LHS and RHS ought to be ==
+
+        match *r {
+            // Never make variables for regions bound within the type itself,
+            // nor for erased regions.
+            ty::ReLateBound(..) | ty::ReErased => {
+                return Ok(r);
+            }
+
+            // It doesn't really matter for correctness if we generalize ReError,
+            // since we're already on a doomed compilation path.
+            ty::ReError(_) => {
+                return Ok(r);
+            }
+
+            ty::RePlaceholder(..)
+            | ty::ReVar(..)
+            | ty::ReStatic
+            | ty::ReEarlyBound(..)
+            | ty::ReFree(..) => {
+                // see common code below
+            }
+        }
+
+        // If we are in an invariant context, we can re-use the region
+        // as is, unless it happens to be in some universe that we
+        // can't name.
+        if let ty::Invariant = self.ambient_variance {
+            let r_universe = self.infcx.universe_of_region(r);
+            if self.for_universe.can_name(r_universe) {
+                return Ok(r);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(self.delegate.generalize_region(self.for_universe))
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self, c2), ret)]
+    fn consts(
+        &mut self,
+        c: ty::Const<'tcx>,
+        c2: ty::Const<'tcx>,
+    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Const<'tcx>> {
+        assert_eq!(c, c2); // we are misusing TypeRelation here; both LHS and RHS ought to be ==
+
+        match c.kind() {
+            ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(_)) if D::forbid_inference_vars() => {
+                bug!("unexpected inference variable encountered in NLL generalization: {:?}", c);
+            }
+            ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)) => {
+                // If root const vids are equal, then `root_vid` and
+                // `vid` are related and we'd be inferring an infinitely
+                // deep const.
+                if ty::TermVid::Const(
+                    self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().const_unification_table().find(vid),
+                ) == self.root_vid
+                {
+                    return Err(self.cyclic_term_error());
+                }
+
+                let mut inner = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut();
+                let variable_table = &mut inner.const_unification_table();
+                let var_value = variable_table.probe_value(vid);
+                match var_value.val {
+                    ConstVariableValue::Known { value: u } => {
+                        drop(inner);
+                        self.relate(u, u)
+                    }
+                    ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe } => {
+                        if self.for_universe.can_name(universe) {
+                            Ok(c)
+                        } else {
+                            let new_var_id = variable_table.new_key(ConstVarValue {
+                                origin: var_value.origin,
+                                val: ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe: self.for_universe },
+                            });
+                            Ok(self.tcx().mk_const(new_var_id, c.ty()))
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            // FIXME: remove this branch once `structurally_relate_consts` is fully
+            // structural.
+            ty::ConstKind::Unevaluated(ty::UnevaluatedConst { def, substs }) => {
+                let substs = self.relate_with_variance(
+                    ty::Variance::Invariant,
+                    ty::VarianceDiagInfo::default(),
+                    substs,
+                    substs,
+                )?;
+                Ok(self.tcx().mk_const(ty::UnevaluatedConst { def, substs }, c.ty()))
+            }
+            ty::ConstKind::Placeholder(placeholder) => {
+                if self.for_universe.can_name(placeholder.universe) {
+                    Ok(c)
+                } else {
+                    debug!(
+                        "root universe {:?} cannot name placeholder in universe {:?}",
+                        self.for_universe, placeholder.universe
+                    );
+                    Err(TypeError::Mismatch)
+                }
+            }
+            _ => relate::structurally_relate_consts(self, c, c),
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[instrument(level = "debug", skip(self), ret)]
+    fn binders<T>(
+        &mut self,
+        a: ty::Binder<'tcx, T>,
+        _: ty::Binder<'tcx, T>,
+    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Binder<'tcx, T>>
+    where
+        T: Relate<'tcx>,
+    {
+        let result = self.relate(a.skip_binder(), a.skip_binder())?;
+        Ok(a.rebind(result))
+    }
+}
+
+/// Result from a generalization operation. This includes
+/// not only the generalized type, but also a bool flag
+/// indicating whether further WF checks are needed.
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Generalization<T> {
+    pub value: T,
+
+    /// If true, then the generalized type may not be well-formed,
+    /// even if the source type is well-formed, so we should add an
+    /// additional check to enforce that it is. This arises in
+    /// particular around 'bivariant' type parameters that are only
+    /// constrained by a where-clause. As an example, imagine a type:
+    ///
+    ///     struct Foo<A, B> where A: Iterator<Item = B> {
+    ///         data: A
+    ///     }
+    ///
+    /// here, `A` will be covariant, but `B` is
+    /// unconstrained. However, whatever it is, for `Foo` to be WF, it
+    /// must be equal to `A::Item`. If we have an input `Foo<?A, ?B>`,
+    /// then after generalization we will wind up with a type like
+    /// `Foo<?C, ?D>`. When we enforce that `Foo<?A, ?B> <: Foo<?C,
+    /// ?D>` (or `>:`), we will wind up with the requirement that `?A
+    /// <: ?C`, but no particular relationship between `?B` and `?D`
+    /// (after all, we do not know the variance of the normalized form
+    /// of `A::Item` with respect to `A`). If we do nothing else, this
+    /// may mean that `?D` goes unconstrained (as in #41677). So, in
+    /// this scenario where we create a new type variable in a
+    /// bivariant context, we set the `needs_wf` flag to true. This
+    /// will force the calling code to check that `WF(Foo<?C, ?D>)`
+    /// holds, which in turn implies that `?C::Item == ?D`. So once
+    /// `?C` is constrained, that should suffice to restrict `?D`.
+    pub needs_wf: bool,
+}
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/mod.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/mod.rs
index 9a95a9c8375..e53319e3b86 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/mod.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/mod.rs
@@ -58,6 +58,7 @@ pub mod error_reporting;
 pub mod free_regions;
 mod freshen;
 mod fudge;
+mod generalize;
 mod glb;
 mod higher_ranked;
 pub mod lattice;
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/nll_relate/mod.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/nll_relate/mod.rs
index 9c139d17c18..4ae6af5f5be 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/nll_relate/mod.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/nll_relate/mod.rs
@@ -21,21 +21,20 @@
 //!   thing we relate in chalk are basically domain goals and their
 //!   constituents)
 
-use crate::infer::InferCtxt;
-use crate::infer::{ConstVarValue, ConstVariableValue};
-use crate::infer::{TypeVariableOrigin, TypeVariableOriginKind};
-use crate::traits::{Obligation, PredicateObligations};
 use rustc_data_structures::fx::FxHashMap;
 use rustc_middle::traits::ObligationCause;
-use rustc_middle::ty::error::TypeError;
 use rustc_middle::ty::fold::FnMutDelegate;
-use rustc_middle::ty::relate::{self, Relate, RelateResult, TypeRelation};
+use rustc_middle::ty::relate::{Relate, RelateResult, TypeRelation};
 use rustc_middle::ty::visit::TypeVisitableExt;
 use rustc_middle::ty::{self, InferConst, Ty, TyCtxt};
 use rustc_span::{Span, Symbol};
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 
-use super::combine::ObligationEmittingRelation;
+use crate::infer::combine::ObligationEmittingRelation;
+use crate::infer::generalize::{self, Generalization};
+use crate::infer::InferCtxt;
+use crate::infer::{TypeVariableOrigin, TypeVariableOriginKind};
+use crate::traits::{Obligation, PredicateObligations};
 
 pub struct TypeRelating<'me, 'tcx, D>
 where
@@ -198,7 +197,7 @@ where
             _ => (),
         }
 
-        let generalized_ty = self.generalize_value(value_ty, vid)?;
+        let generalized_ty = self.generalize(value_ty, vid)?;
         debug!("relate_ty_var: generalized_ty = {:?}", generalized_ty);
 
         if D::forbid_inference_vars() {
@@ -217,26 +216,15 @@ where
         result
     }
 
-    fn generalize_value<T: Relate<'tcx>>(
-        &mut self,
-        value: T,
-        for_vid: ty::TyVid,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, T> {
-        let universe = self.infcx.probe_ty_var(for_vid).unwrap_err();
-
-        if value.has_escaping_bound_vars() {
-            bug!("trying to instantiate {for_vid:?} with escaping bound vars: {value:?}");
-        }
-
-        let mut generalizer = TypeGeneralizer {
-            infcx: self.infcx,
-            delegate: &mut self.delegate,
-            ambient_variance: self.ambient_variance,
-            for_vid_sub_root: self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut().type_variables().sub_root_var(for_vid),
-            universe,
-        };
-
-        generalizer.relate(value, value)
+    fn generalize(&mut self, ty: Ty<'tcx>, for_vid: ty::TyVid) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Ty<'tcx>> {
+        let Generalization { value: ty, needs_wf: _ } = generalize::generalize(
+            self.infcx,
+            &mut self.delegate,
+            ty,
+            for_vid,
+            self.ambient_variance,
+        )?;
+        Ok(ty)
     }
 
     fn relate_opaques(&mut self, a: Ty<'tcx>, b: Ty<'tcx>) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Ty<'tcx>> {
@@ -716,235 +704,3 @@ where
         })]);
     }
 }
-
-/// The "type generalizer" is used when handling inference variables.
-///
-/// The basic strategy for handling a constraint like `?A <: B` is to
-/// apply a "generalization strategy" to the type `B` -- this replaces
-/// all the lifetimes in the type `B` with fresh inference
-/// variables. (You can read more about the strategy in this [blog
-/// post].)
-///
-/// As an example, if we had `?A <: &'x u32`, we would generalize `&'x
-/// u32` to `&'0 u32` where `'0` is a fresh variable. This becomes the
-/// value of `A`. Finally, we relate `&'0 u32 <: &'x u32`, which
-/// establishes `'0: 'x` as a constraint.
-///
-/// [blog post]: https://is.gd/0hKvIr
-struct TypeGeneralizer<'me, 'tcx, D>
-where
-    D: TypeRelatingDelegate<'tcx>,
-{
-    infcx: &'me InferCtxt<'tcx>,
-
-    delegate: &'me mut D,
-
-    /// After we generalize this type, we are going to relate it to
-    /// some other type. What will be the variance at this point?
-    ambient_variance: ty::Variance,
-
-    /// The vid of the type variable that is in the process of being
-    /// instantiated. If we find this within the value we are folding,
-    /// that means we would have created a cyclic value.
-    for_vid_sub_root: ty::TyVid,
-
-    /// The universe of the type variable that is in the process of being
-    /// instantiated. If we find anything that this universe cannot name,
-    /// we reject the relation.
-    universe: ty::UniverseIndex,
-}
-
-impl<'tcx, D> TypeRelation<'tcx> for TypeGeneralizer<'_, 'tcx, D>
-where
-    D: TypeRelatingDelegate<'tcx>,
-{
-    fn tcx(&self) -> TyCtxt<'tcx> {
-        self.infcx.tcx
-    }
-
-    fn param_env(&self) -> ty::ParamEnv<'tcx> {
-        self.delegate.param_env()
-    }
-
-    fn tag(&self) -> &'static str {
-        "nll::generalizer"
-    }
-
-    fn a_is_expected(&self) -> bool {
-        true
-    }
-
-    fn relate_with_variance<T: Relate<'tcx>>(
-        &mut self,
-        variance: ty::Variance,
-        _info: ty::VarianceDiagInfo<'tcx>,
-        a: T,
-        b: T,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, T> {
-        debug!(
-            "TypeGeneralizer::relate_with_variance(variance={:?}, a={:?}, b={:?})",
-            variance, a, b
-        );
-
-        let old_ambient_variance = self.ambient_variance;
-        self.ambient_variance = self.ambient_variance.xform(variance);
-
-        debug!(
-            "TypeGeneralizer::relate_with_variance: ambient_variance = {:?}",
-            self.ambient_variance
-        );
-
-        let r = self.relate(a, b)?;
-
-        self.ambient_variance = old_ambient_variance;
-
-        debug!("TypeGeneralizer::relate_with_variance: r={:?}", r);
-
-        Ok(r)
-    }
-
-    fn tys(&mut self, a: Ty<'tcx>, _: Ty<'tcx>) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Ty<'tcx>> {
-        use crate::infer::type_variable::TypeVariableValue;
-
-        debug!("TypeGeneralizer::tys(a={:?})", a);
-
-        match *a.kind() {
-            ty::Infer(ty::TyVar(_)) | ty::Infer(ty::IntVar(_)) | ty::Infer(ty::FloatVar(_))
-                if D::forbid_inference_vars() =>
-            {
-                bug!("unexpected inference variable encountered in NLL generalization: {:?}", a);
-            }
-
-            ty::Infer(ty::TyVar(vid)) => {
-                let mut inner = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut();
-                let variables = &mut inner.type_variables();
-                let vid = variables.root_var(vid);
-                let sub_vid = variables.sub_root_var(vid);
-                if sub_vid == self.for_vid_sub_root {
-                    // If sub-roots are equal, then `for_vid` and
-                    // `vid` are related via subtyping.
-                    debug!("TypeGeneralizer::tys: occurs check failed");
-                    Err(TypeError::Mismatch)
-                } else {
-                    match variables.probe(vid) {
-                        TypeVariableValue::Known { value: u } => {
-                            drop(inner);
-                            self.relate(u, u)
-                        }
-                        TypeVariableValue::Unknown { universe: _universe } => {
-                            if self.ambient_variance == ty::Bivariant {
-                                // FIXME: we may need a WF predicate (related to #54105).
-                            }
-
-                            let origin = *variables.var_origin(vid);
-
-                            // Replacing with a new variable in the universe `self.universe`,
-                            // it will be unified later with the original type variable in
-                            // the universe `_universe`.
-                            let new_var_id = variables.new_var(self.universe, origin);
-
-                            let u = self.tcx().mk_ty_var(new_var_id);
-                            debug!("generalize: replacing original vid={:?} with new={:?}", vid, u);
-                            Ok(u)
-                        }
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-
-            ty::Infer(ty::IntVar(_) | ty::FloatVar(_)) => {
-                // No matter what mode we are in,
-                // integer/floating-point types must be equal to be
-                // relatable.
-                Ok(a)
-            }
-
-            ty::Placeholder(placeholder) => {
-                if self.universe.cannot_name(placeholder.universe) {
-                    debug!(
-                        "TypeGeneralizer::tys: root universe {:?} cannot name\
-                         placeholder in universe {:?}",
-                        self.universe, placeholder.universe
-                    );
-                    Err(TypeError::Mismatch)
-                } else {
-                    Ok(a)
-                }
-            }
-
-            _ => relate::super_relate_tys(self, a, a),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn regions(
-        &mut self,
-        a: ty::Region<'tcx>,
-        _: ty::Region<'tcx>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Region<'tcx>> {
-        debug!("TypeGeneralizer::regions(a={:?})", a);
-
-        if let ty::ReLateBound(..) = *a {
-            return Ok(a);
-        }
-
-        // For now, we just always create a fresh region variable to
-        // replace all the regions in the source type. In the main
-        // type checker, we special case the case where the ambient
-        // variance is `Invariant` and try to avoid creating a fresh
-        // region variable, but since this comes up so much less in
-        // NLL (only when users use `_` etc) it is much less
-        // important.
-        //
-        // As an aside, since these new variables are created in
-        // `self.universe` universe, this also serves to enforce the
-        // universe scoping rules.
-        //
-        // FIXME(#54105) -- if the ambient variance is bivariant,
-        // though, we may however need to check well-formedness or
-        // risk a problem like #41677 again.
-        let replacement_region_vid = self.delegate.generalize_existential(self.universe);
-
-        Ok(replacement_region_vid)
-    }
-
-    fn consts(
-        &mut self,
-        a: ty::Const<'tcx>,
-        _: ty::Const<'tcx>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Const<'tcx>> {
-        match a.kind() {
-            ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(_)) if D::forbid_inference_vars() => {
-                bug!("unexpected inference variable encountered in NLL generalization: {:?}", a);
-            }
-            ty::ConstKind::Infer(InferConst::Var(vid)) => {
-                let mut inner = self.infcx.inner.borrow_mut();
-                let variable_table = &mut inner.const_unification_table();
-                let var_value = variable_table.probe_value(vid);
-                match var_value.val.known() {
-                    Some(u) => self.relate(u, u),
-                    None => {
-                        let new_var_id = variable_table.new_key(ConstVarValue {
-                            origin: var_value.origin,
-                            val: ConstVariableValue::Unknown { universe: self.universe },
-                        });
-                        Ok(self.tcx().mk_const(new_var_id, a.ty()))
-                    }
-                }
-            }
-            ty::ConstKind::Unevaluated(..) if self.tcx().lazy_normalization() => Ok(a),
-            _ => relate::super_relate_consts(self, a, a),
-        }
-    }
-
-    fn binders<T>(
-        &mut self,
-        a: ty::Binder<'tcx, T>,
-        _: ty::Binder<'tcx, T>,
-    ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Binder<'tcx, T>>
-    where
-        T: Relate<'tcx>,
-    {
-        debug!("TypeGeneralizer::binders(a={:?})", a);
-        let result = self.relate(a.skip_binder(), a.skip_binder())?;
-        Ok(a.rebind(result))
-    }
-}
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/outlives/test_type_match.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/outlives/test_type_match.rs
index 75ce0f83fd6..cd2462d3c31 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/outlives/test_type_match.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/outlives/test_type_match.rs
@@ -187,7 +187,7 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Match<'tcx> {
         } else if pattern == value {
             Ok(pattern)
         } else {
-            relate::super_relate_tys(self, pattern, value)
+            relate::structurally_relate_tys(self, pattern, value)
         }
     }
 
@@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Match<'tcx> {
         if pattern == value {
             Ok(pattern)
         } else {
-            relate::super_relate_consts(self, pattern, value)
+            relate::structurally_relate_consts(self, pattern, value)
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/sub.rs b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/sub.rs
index 3766c250a9c..e0f29a8de8f 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/sub.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_infer/src/infer/sub.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-use super::combine::{CombineFields, RelationDir};
+use super::combine::CombineFields;
 use super::{DefineOpaqueTypes, ObligationEmittingRelation, SubregionOrigin};
 
 use crate::traits::{Obligation, PredicateObligations};
@@ -108,11 +108,11 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Sub<'_, '_, 'tcx> {
                 Ok(a)
             }
             (&ty::Infer(TyVar(a_id)), _) => {
-                self.fields.instantiate(b, RelationDir::SupertypeOf, a_id, !self.a_is_expected)?;
+                self.fields.instantiate(b, ty::Contravariant, a_id, !self.a_is_expected)?;
                 Ok(a)
             }
             (_, &ty::Infer(TyVar(b_id))) => {
-                self.fields.instantiate(a, RelationDir::SubtypeOf, b_id, self.a_is_expected)?;
+                self.fields.instantiate(a, ty::Covariant, b_id, self.a_is_expected)?;
                 Ok(a)
             }
 
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/_match.rs b/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/_match.rs
index 468c2c818b2..cbc68fde9d9 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/_match.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/_match.rs
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Match<'tcx> {
 
             (&ty::Error(guar), _) | (_, &ty::Error(guar)) => Ok(self.tcx().ty_error(guar)),
 
-            _ => relate::super_relate_tys(self, a, b),
+            _ => relate::structurally_relate_tys(self, a, b),
         }
     }
 
@@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ impl<'tcx> TypeRelation<'tcx> for Match<'tcx> {
             _ => {}
         }
 
-        relate::super_relate_consts(self, a, b)
+        relate::structurally_relate_consts(self, a, b)
     }
 
     fn binders<T>(
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/mod.rs b/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/mod.rs
index a497b6a335d..df324bcc52c 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/mod.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/mod.rs
@@ -1072,6 +1072,24 @@ impl ParamTerm {
     }
 }
 
+#[derive(Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Debug)]
+pub enum TermVid<'tcx> {
+    Ty(ty::TyVid),
+    Const(ty::ConstVid<'tcx>),
+}
+
+impl From<ty::TyVid> for TermVid<'_> {
+    fn from(value: ty::TyVid) -> Self {
+        TermVid::Ty(value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'tcx> From<ty::ConstVid<'tcx>> for TermVid<'tcx> {
+    fn from(value: ty::ConstVid<'tcx>) -> Self {
+        TermVid::Const(value)
+    }
+}
+
 /// This kind of predicate has no *direct* correspondent in the
 /// syntax, but it roughly corresponds to the syntactic forms:
 ///
diff --git a/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/relate.rs b/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/relate.rs
index da43475941e..3bbe6a23b66 100644
--- a/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/relate.rs
+++ b/compiler/rustc_middle/src/ty/relate.rs
@@ -388,24 +388,24 @@ impl<'tcx> Relate<'tcx> for Ty<'tcx> {
     }
 }
 
-/// The main "type relation" routine. Note that this does not handle
-/// inference artifacts, so you should filter those out before calling
-/// it.
-pub fn super_relate_tys<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
+/// Relates `a` and `b` structurally, calling the relation for all nested values.
+/// Any semantic equality, e.g. of projections, and inference variables have to be
+/// handled by the caller.
+pub fn structurally_relate_tys<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
     relation: &mut R,
     a: Ty<'tcx>,
     b: Ty<'tcx>,
 ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, Ty<'tcx>> {
     let tcx = relation.tcx();
-    debug!("super_relate_tys: a={:?} b={:?}", a, b);
+    debug!("structurally_relate_tys: a={:?} b={:?}", a, b);
     match (a.kind(), b.kind()) {
         (&ty::Infer(_), _) | (_, &ty::Infer(_)) => {
             // The caller should handle these cases!
-            bug!("var types encountered in super_relate_tys")
+            bug!("var types encountered in structurally_relate_tys")
         }
 
         (ty::Bound(..), _) | (_, ty::Bound(..)) => {
-            bug!("bound types encountered in super_relate_tys")
+            bug!("bound types encountered in structurally_relate_tys")
         }
 
         (&ty::Error(guar), _) | (_, &ty::Error(guar)) => Ok(tcx.ty_error(guar)),
@@ -575,15 +575,18 @@ pub fn super_relate_tys<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
     }
 }
 
-/// The main "const relation" routine. Note that this does not handle
-/// inference artifacts, so you should filter those out before calling
-/// it.
-pub fn super_relate_consts<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
+/// Relates `a` and `b` structurally, calling the relation for all nested values.
+/// Any semantic equality, e.g. of unevaluated consts, and inference variables have
+/// to be handled by the caller.
+///
+/// FIXME: This is not totally structual, which probably should be fixed.
+/// See the HACKs below.
+pub fn structurally_relate_consts<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
     relation: &mut R,
     mut a: ty::Const<'tcx>,
     mut b: ty::Const<'tcx>,
 ) -> RelateResult<'tcx, ty::Const<'tcx>> {
-    debug!("{}.super_relate_consts(a = {:?}, b = {:?})", relation.tag(), a, b);
+    debug!("{}.structurally_relate_consts(a = {:?}, b = {:?})", relation.tag(), a, b);
     let tcx = relation.tcx();
 
     // HACK(const_generics): We still need to eagerly evaluate consts when
@@ -602,7 +605,7 @@ pub fn super_relate_consts<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
         b = tcx.expand_abstract_consts(b);
     }
 
-    debug!("{}.super_relate_consts(normed_a = {:?}, normed_b = {:?})", relation.tag(), a, b);
+    debug!("{}.structurally_relate_consts(normed_a = {:?}, normed_b = {:?})", relation.tag(), a, b);
 
     // Currently, the values that can be unified are primitive types,
     // and those that derive both `PartialEq` and `Eq`, corresponding
@@ -610,7 +613,7 @@ pub fn super_relate_consts<'tcx, R: TypeRelation<'tcx>>(
     let is_match = match (a.kind(), b.kind()) {
         (ty::ConstKind::Infer(_), _) | (_, ty::ConstKind::Infer(_)) => {
             // The caller should handle these cases!
-            bug!("var types encountered in super_relate_consts: {:?} {:?}", a, b)
+            bug!("var types encountered in structurally_relate_consts: {:?} {:?}", a, b)
         }
 
         (ty::ConstKind::Error(_), _) => return Ok(a),
diff --git a/tests/ui/traits/non_lifetime_binders/universe-error1.rs b/tests/ui/traits/non_lifetime_binders/universe-error1.rs
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..eadee6b711e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/ui/traits/non_lifetime_binders/universe-error1.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+#![feature(non_lifetime_binders)]
+//~^ WARN the feature `non_lifetime_binders` is incomplete
+
+trait Other<U: ?Sized> {}
+
+impl<U: ?Sized> Other<U> for U {}
+
+#[rustfmt::skip]
+fn foo<U: ?Sized>()
+where
+    for<T> T: Other<U> {}
+
+fn bar() {
+    foo::<_>();
+    //~^ ERROR the trait bound `T: Other<_>` is not satisfied
+}
+
+fn main() {}
diff --git a/tests/ui/traits/non_lifetime_binders/universe-error1.stderr b/tests/ui/traits/non_lifetime_binders/universe-error1.stderr
new file mode 100644
index 00000000000..bfcad72e352
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/ui/traits/non_lifetime_binders/universe-error1.stderr
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+warning: the feature `non_lifetime_binders` is incomplete and may not be safe to use and/or cause compiler crashes
+  --> $DIR/universe-error1.rs:1:12
+   |
+LL | #![feature(non_lifetime_binders)]
+   |            ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+   |
+   = note: see issue #108185 <https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/108185> for more information
+   = note: `#[warn(incomplete_features)]` on by default
+
+error[E0277]: the trait bound `T: Other<_>` is not satisfied
+  --> $DIR/universe-error1.rs:14:11
+   |
+LL |     foo::<_>();
+   |           ^ the trait `Other<_>` is not implemented for `T`
+   |
+note: required by a bound in `foo`
+  --> $DIR/universe-error1.rs:11:15
+   |
+LL | fn foo<U: ?Sized>()
+   |    --- required by a bound in this function
+LL | where
+LL |     for<T> T: Other<U> {}
+   |               ^^^^^^^^ required by this bound in `foo`
+
+error: aborting due to previous error; 1 warning emitted
+
+For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0277`.