std: Stabilize FromStr and parse

This commits adds an associated type to the `FromStr` trait representing an
error payload for parses which do not succeed. The previous return value,
`Option<Self>` did not allow for this form of payload. After the associated type
was added, the following attributes were applied:

* `FromStr` is now stable
* `FromStr::Err` is now stable
* `FromStr::from_str` is now stable
* `StrExt::parse` is now stable
* `FromStr for bool` is now stable
* `FromStr for $float` is now stable
* `FromStr for $integral` is now stable
* Errors returned from stable `FromStr` implementations are stable
* Errors implement `Display` and `Error` (both impl blocks being `#[stable]`)

Closes #15138

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